f i n d p a t h r u l e r i s e r o l e w o r k l o o p · · · · · · ·

Prologue

0.1 God, in Your Power, here begins the New Rhetoric. Since speech is the medium and instrument through which speakers and listeners come together for one end, it follows that when speech is more ornamented and more orderly, it will display more beauty, and when speech is more beautiful, it also becomes more pleasing to the listeners. Indeed the more pleasing it is, the more necessary it becomes that through it the speakers and listeners are harmoniously united in one end. And since the art of rhetoric is ordained for this, the subject of this art will be orderly, ornamented, and beautiful speech. We wish, as we have long sought to do, to provide knowledge about organizing and ornamenting words and composing sermons according to the General Art, but have been unable to do so because of other affairs that we could not avoid, especially because these sermons require lengthy writing, since they deal with very diverse subject-matters. We have prepared this book as a compendium that displays an easy and efficacious way of composing and arranging beautiful and natural sermons on many and various subjects, while observing due order and process.


On the Division of This Book

0.2 In order to present clearly the teaching of this book to its readers, we have arranged this book in parts so that the order of the teaching will be obvious. Thus everyone can find whatever they desire in it. There are four parts, namely order, beauty, knowledge, and love. Now order is a part of this discipline because it provides instruction for speakers that teaches them to observe due order and to avoid disorganization in any sermons or speech. This procures the mutual peace and amity of speakers and listeners, which beautiful and organized speech initiates, since according to the authority of Seneca “speaking well is the beginning of friendship.” Likewise we truly propose beauty as a part, which we said was the subject of this art, because we want to explain how it is a subject of rhetoric. Beauty will thus allow us to offer instruction with and through which everyone can ornament and properly beautify their speech. Now we also propose knowledge as part of our rhetoric, so that we can offer instruction that shows readers how one ought to seek the beauty and ornament of words through it and with it, and how beautiful and ornamented words should be found. Thus the beautiful and organized may be distinguished from the disorganized and foul, so that the beautiful may be kept for use and the foul avoided. We also assign love as the fourth part of this art, because from it should be drawn instruction, whether in words or not. This is because words proffered in love shine with such comeliness of beauty from it that without love they cannot be beautiful in the end.



Part 1. On Order

1.0 Now the order found in speech enables words to achieve virtue and efficacy in the speaker as well as the listeners.

1.1.0 This order of speech consists of three things that constitute this order, namely form, matter, and end. Each of these means two things.

1.1.1 Thus the form of speech is twofold. For a word has one form from itself, which is essential and proper to it. It has another form from the addition of another word. This form is accidental to a word. And we can put this in an example. For this word “queen” has in itself great beauty and decorum, which is its essential form. It also has an accidental form which results if one adds a word signifying goodness to it. For goodness greatly adorns the loveliness and beauty that this word “queen” signifies, when one says “The queen has great goodness” or “The queen is good.” The reason for saying this is obvious, because the beauty that this word “queen” signifies best agrees with goodness. And therefore goodness, the accidental form, adorns and beautifies the beauty of the queen, the essential form. And this is also manifest to the senses in its contrary. For if one were to say “The queen who has great beauty has great malice,” we see clearly that malice ousts, annihilates, and befouls the first, essential form. Now here is instruction for distinguishing either form of a word, so that one can adorn the beauty of its essential form with the beauty of the accidental form, and avoid the contrary that annihilates it. For no one speaks rhetorically who says “The queen has great beauty and great malice” or “has great goodness and great foolishness.” And the same judgement applies to all things expressed like these.

1.1.2 Just as speech has a double form, so it has a double matter. One of course is essential and proper, which these words or terms indicate, namely “queen,” “greatness,” and “beauty.” These are the matter and subject of the form of speech designated when one says “The queen has great beauty.” Now these words are thus the proper matter of that form in speech, just as the many beams from which a ship is built are the matter of the form of the ship. There is another accidental matter in speech, as appears in these words, namely “queen,” “greatness,” and “goodness.” For these are the accidental matter of this form, namely “The queen has great goodness.” Now this form “The queen has great goodness” gives color and beauty to this other form, namely “The queen has great beauty,” as is clear from the aforesaid. In the same way, these words “queen” and “beauty” are primary and proper matter with respect to these words “queen” and “goodness,” which are accidental matter, if either matter is referred to the proper form mentioned for it.

1.1.3 Now the end in speech is likewise double: the first in exposition, the other in what one intends by speaking and on account of which one speaks. Hence the first end of speech is in expounding and expressing, as when one expounds these words: “The queen who has great beauty has great goodness.” Now the second end of speech is the one that the speaker intends to achieve from speaking and because of which the speaker utters the discourse of the speech. And this end complements and fulfills speech, as is clear from this example. Imagine that a lady in waiting says to the queen, “Lady, you have great beauty and great goodness,” intending this end, namely that her mistress will provide her with a husband. The lady in waiting commends the lady for the sake of this end.

1.1.4 Therefore these three—namely form, matter, and end—are what constitute order in speech. And the order of speech depends so much on these that without them speech cannot be duly organized. And thus with these three we intend to investigate the order of speech and orderly speech in the second and third part of this treatise.

1.2 There is furthermore another mode of organization in speech which is observed according to the beginning. That is, one observes what words should be placed in the beginning, what in the middle, and what in the very end. For no word should be indifferently placed before another. Hence someone who is going to speak about a queen and handmaid should put the queen before the hand-maid, and say “The queen and hand-maid have great beauty.” However, one should not say “The hand-maid and the queen are adorned with great beauty.” For this word “lady” or “queen” is lovelier and nobler than the word “hand-maid,” because the word “lady” or “queen” signifies high rank and lordship, but the word “hand-maid” indicates subjection and servitude. And therefore the noun “queen” is placed before the noun “hand-maid,” because the worthier should be placed before the less worthy.

1.3.0 This order should also be followed in requests, accusations, defenses, and giving counsel.

1.3.1 This order should be observed in requests, because when this order is observed, what is sought is easily obtained. Hence if someone were going to seek something from someone else. Imagine a poor knight wants to ask the king to provide something for his marriageable daughter, which will enable her to enjoy wedded union. Anyone seeking this from the king should begin with praises and commendations, inserting among them examples about charity and the subject of liberality. These move the king’s spirit to giving. For this he might suitably recount the reply of Alexander: A certain knight who had long fought for King Alexander asked to receive something that would let him live honorably, because his age no longer made him suitable for battle. However, King Alexander gave him a city. When the knight said that he should not receive so much, the king is said to have told the knight that he did not consider what the knight was worthy to receive, but rather what was proper for royal munificence to bestow. He preferred to give according to the nature and mode of liberality, than according to the mode of avarice and poverty, because the poverty of the knight or vassal and the service to the king, rendered for the royal honor that it served, require compensation with rewards of greater gifts.’ Having said these things that pertain to praise of royal majesty and commendation of munificence or liberality, he should mention next his need, and the indigence and want of the one—namely his daughter—for whom he intercedes. He should say that he has no means of marrying her and that this daughter should not shamelessly and dangerously remain without a husband. Once all this is set forth, he should add third what pertains to the substance of the request, namely that his daughter be deemed worthy of marriage. He should also include the conclusion that this contributes to the honor of royal status and to praise of his good reputation among his subjects and vassals, as well as no little good and honor to the petitioning knight himself.

1.3.2 Now those who make an accusation should observe a similar mode in their speech. For anyone who wishes to accuse another of some offense should—after some opening words condemning injustice and sin—recount the offense itself and finally state the allegation. Thus a certain knight is said to have accused his lord of having betrayed him. Now the knight had commended his wife to the lord and the lord had committed adultery with her. So this knight charged his lord with betrayal. In the beginning of his account he related things condemning the sin of betrayal, and how betrayal among the retainers of lords is exceedingly grave and disgraceful. After saying this, he added how the lord had betrayed him, namely that he had defiled the wife entrusted to him through adulterous union. After sufficiently and systematically setting this forth, he finally added how vehemently he was angered and outraged against the lord who had shown himself so ungrateful toward him, and how he now hated the lord as much as he could. And so it would be just to deprive the lord, who had betrayed him through such an enormous crime, of the obedience and allegiance of his knight.

1.3.3 One who must offer a defense before another should not depart from this way of organizing words either. First one should strive as much as possible to commend and praise the person before whom one seeks to excuse oneself. Afterwards in the middle of the speech one should denounce the deception and offense by which one was deceived, and last of all offer an excuse, saying that henceforth one would not for anything in the world commit the deception or offense with which one was charged.

1.3.4 Whoever counsels another when offering advice, ornaments words like this. First, one recounts the order of the things that one will recommend, in order to show where one wishes to begin and how one can obtain the desired result. Now in the proposal one should state the order involved: what goes in the beginning, what in the middle, and what in the end of the affair for which advice is sought. The Intellect and Imagination of the questioner more diligently and attentively grasp the advice and grant whatever expedites undertaking, continuing, and completing the affair. When one listens and understands in this way, the words of the counselor seem ornamented, and they please thanks to this ornament and beauty.

1.4 There are many other modes to recount, which ornament and beautify speech through order, when one diligently considers which words should be put in the beginning, which in the middle, and which last of all. However, once all the words are properly arranged in their places, it is necessary to place them according to the order of form, matter, and end just as was explained above. Thus it is clear how they are considered according to beginning, middle, and end.



On the Second Part of this Book, Namely Beauty

2.0 With the part concerning order explained, here follows the second part, which deals with beauty. Now beauty arises from both adorning and ornamenting speech. Seven things are necessary for the beauty sought in this art: the first of these is that speech have beautiful words; second that it have beautiful first principles; third that beautiful comparisons appear in speaking; fourth that beautiful exempla are included; fifth that the speech have fitting ornament; sixth that beautiful conjunctions and disjunctions be made in speech; seventh and last that the speaker offer in the beginning beautiful and ornate proverbs that suit the purpose. Now through the seven things enumerated above one should seek the beauty and ornament of speech. Here follows instruction from which one learns to find them and include them in one’s speech as the purpose demands.


On the Beauty of Speech

2.1.0 A word or term receives beauty from three things, namely form, matter, and end.

2.1.1 For a word or term is called beautiful when it has a beautiful form, in the way that all the words listed here are ornamented and rendered beautiful. These are “god,” “angel,” “man,” “goodness,” “greatness,” “eternity,” “power,” “king,” “queen,” “serving-girl,” “knight,” “lady,” and so forth, all of which are beautiful words thanks to their form. The same can be said of “sun,” “star,” “radiance,” “lion,” “horse,” “tree,” “rose,” “violet,” “lily,” “flower,” “gold,” “ruby,” and “emerald.” For these are all beautiful words and when one speaks about them, they ornament that speech with their loveliness.

2.1.2 A word is likewise said to be beautiful because of its matter. In this way the word “angel” is said to be beautiful thanks to the nature of its matter, because its matter is spiritual and incorruptible. And so it is for “sun,” “moon,” and “stars,” which become beautiful thanks to the incorruptibility of their matter. This word “lady” is also said to be beautiful, because it designates by itself dominion. The same judgement should be accepted for all others like these. For “goodness” is called a beautiful word, because goodness is contrary to badness. And likewise truth, which is opposed to falsehood, and generosity, which stands against avarice through contrary opposition. Now the contrariety in these—or any other opposition—is the matter of these words through which beauty inheres in these words. This beauty beautifies speech composed of these words.

2.1.3 Third and last, a word is said to be beautiful because of an end. For this reason “angel” ought to be called a beautiful word because the angel was created to attain the best end. This is serving and knowing God, in order to enjoy true blessedness through the happy sweetness of contemplation. Likewise with justice, which exists for conserving peace, and pity, which exists for forgiving. The same can also be said of delight, which is for enjoying, and of goodness, which is ordained to doing good, and of bread, which exists for living. So also iron is for plowing, for sewing, for cutting, and likewise for all other things which have beauty and comeliness from their ordained end.

2.1.4 It is necessary therefore to consider these three things, because without them speech cannot be comely. But if it is properly arranged according to these, it will certainly not lack beauty.


On Beautiful Principles

2.2 Beautiful principles are among the other things that greatly adorn speech. For if speech contains beautiful principles, it will be pleasing and beautiful. Now there are five major principles that, if missing in speech, make the entire speech lack beauty. These are truth, courage, affection, humility, and continuity.

2.2.1 For when anyone speaks true words, the beauty of the truth makes the form, matter, and end of speech clearly apparent to the audience. Thanks to this the listeners clearly understand, and feel love for the speakers, because truth understood in words renders speakers lovable. Likewise the converse: from falsehood and malice words become obscure and hateful, because no beauty of form, matter, or end shines in them, nor do they display any reason for loving them. Similarly also if words are true and bad, because neither in false and bad nor in true and bad words can any beauty of form, matter, and end shine, since these lack a good end. So when one considers the truth of the affair thus, speech will be true, good, beautiful, and pleasing to say when the discourse begins and continues through them, since it consists of these together.

2.2.2 The second principle that greatly beautifies speech is courage. This fortifies and renders resolute the spirit of the speaker and exalts and invigorates the voice. For beautiful speech forms in those words that most powerfully affect the spirit of the audience, which desires and craves hearing things that receive beauty and loveliness from courage. But when someone proffers a speech with fear and without courage, the speech loses its power and is considered worthless by the audience. Because it is spoken with fear, it insinuates to the audience that it lacks a good end; or if it has a true end, it is deemed of little or no benefit.

2.2.3 There is moreover a third principle that marvelously adorns speech. This is affection. For when someone speaks with great affection, it renders the audience benevolent and more interested in the things said. And it inclines more easily to those things that the speaker seeks to achieve in speaking. But when one delivers a speech without affection, the suspicion immediately arises in the mind of the listener that the speaker has little interest in the end for which the speech is composed. So lack of affection in speaking indicates scant desire for one’s end; the speech is thus rendered ugly and deemed worthless or unimportant in the minds of the listeners. Therefore someone who speaks should, if seeking beautiful speech that achieves the desired end, at the outset of a narration deliver the words with a fervent spirit and great affection. In this way the audience will receive them in the Intellect, Imagination, and Memory and feel love for them, because they achieve the best effect in this way.

2.2.4 Now the fourth principle that greatly contributes to ornament and beauty in speech is humility. For when a speaker begins to deliver words with humility, the beautiful power of humility renders the speech beautiful and exalts it. And the exaltation of the speech humbles the listeners, renders them benevolent, and makes them listen attentively to the speech. Thanks to this, the speech beautiful to hear and lovely with humility passes from hearing into the Imagination of the listeners. And when well imagined by them, it informs the Intellect and remains in the Memory and pleases the Will of the listeners. But conversely, when someone begins a speech with arrogance and pride, the arrogance informs and imprints its likeness upon the listeners’ Senses, Imagination, Memory, and Intellect. There it creates the appearance of unimportance and is deemed worthy of no esteem.

2.2.5 Now the last principle that has great power for ornamenting words is called continuity. Continuity is the instrument that the speaker should use to join words, so that one word joins another without shortening or lapse in speaking. Speech consists in these words. Continuity in speech and uniformity in speaking impresses it on the ears of the audience, because it demands continuous attention from them. And likewise continuity arises from this in the Intellect, Memory, and Imagination. The speech is retained better and becomes desirable and attractive to the listeners. But if there is discontinuity in speech, this likeness is impressed on the listener and the speech seems unimportant and without appeal and is considered to be of little value.

2.2.6 In order to make speech truly beautiful, it is necessary to ornament it with the aforestated Principles. From the instruction given above one can easily learn how the Principles and examples mentioned above should be fitted into speech in the appropriate order, so that from this orderly placement the speech becomes beautiful, and those hearing it moved to praise and friendly affection.


On Beautiful Comparisons

2.3.0 There are three degrees of comparison: these are the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. Positive is like “good,” comparative like “better,” superlative like “best.”

2.3.1 Speech acquires beauty from these three degrees of comparison, if they are inserted in a speech having a beautiful form, end, and matter. For it is beautiful to say “The rose and violet are beautiful flowers,” “The rose is a more beautiful flower than the violet,” or “The rose is the most beautiful of flowers and so is more beautiful than the almond flower.” Likewise if one were to say “Gold and iron have a good end.” The end of iron is more beneficial than the end of gold, since greater good is done with iron than with gold, even though gold is more precious than iron. The same modes of comparison can also be used to say “The queen is good and beautiful.” For this word casts the form of beauty on the words following. By comparison, one might say “The queen is beautiful and not good” or “The queen and hand-maid are beautiful,” because it is unfitting to compare a queen with a hand-maid. Therefore one should say “The queen is more beautiful than the lady-in-waiting,” and one should not say “The queen is more beautiful than a serving-girl.” Likewise one should say “The queen and lady-in-waiting are very beautiful.” But “The queen and serving-girl are very lovely” is not beautifully said.

2.3.2 Moreover this likewise holds if one makes a comparison between a noun, pronoun, verb, adverb, or participle, as the following example shows: “The queen and you are good and beautiful.” Now this is beautiful speech. But “The queen and you are not beautiful” is not well said. Likewise if one says “I and the queen are beautiful and good.” The same way holds for a noun and verb, as when one says “The queen and lady-in-waiting make a beautiful shirt of gold,” “The queen sings better than the lady-in-waiting,” or “The queen and lady-in-waiting perform a very beautiful song.” This can be said likewise about a comparison between a noun and a verb, or an adverb and a participle, as when one says “The queen makes a beautiful face when laughing,” The king speaking is more handsome than his judge,” or “The king and his judge are very loving when they pass sentence.”

2.3.3 Such a comparison of beauty should be observed also between a subject and a predicate, so that from them will issue beautiful and smooth speech, just as if one were to speak this speech that is beautiful: “The queen is beautiful.” And the nature of beauty belongs to this speech because this noun “queen,” which is put as the subject, is a beautiful word and likewise “beautiful,” which is put as the predicate. Someone who says “The queen is beautiful,” speaks beautifully by putting a substantive before an adjective in this speech. This is because a substantive has greater essence and nobility than the adjective predicated of it, which would lack a place to exist without it. And so it happens that one who puts an adjective before a substantive in speech—as when one says “Beautiful is the queen”—utters foul and disordered speech. This is called foul because it does not maintain the proper nobility of the substantive. Similarly, if one says “More lovely is the queen than the lady-in-waiting” or “The beauty is exceedingly greater in the lady-in-waiting than in the queen.” Rather, one ought to say “The queen is more beautiful than the lady-in-waiting” or “The queen and lady-in-waiting have very great beauty.”

2.3.4 Anyone who desires to speak rhetorically can apply to speech and insert all the modes named by us, and many others, with the degrees of comparison, just as the examples stated above show.


On Beautiful Exampla

2.4.0 Beautiful exempla come from two types of matter, that is either natural things or moral things. Now natural things are either spiritual—like God and the angels—or corporeal—like the heavens, earth, and animals. Similarly, moral things are of two kinds, since they are either virtues or the opposite, vices and sins. Now since this is so, a speaker who desires pleasing and decorous words should select exempla about these things and apply them to speech in due order. In order for a speaker to do this correctly and know how to insert at suitable places, we will offer the requisite instruction about this.

2.4.1 The beautiful exempla applicable to speech for the sake of beautifying and ornamenting it are those concerning God. Thus one might apply in a speech the divine nature and operations, which God innately possesses, or those which God continuously exercises in creatures. For example, one might propose how a likeness of the divine and most blessed Trinity is found somehow in all creatures, for just as God is both three and one—that is, three in persons but one in substance—so also a certain trinity in unity appears in every creature. For a created thing is one but has three essential and necessary properties.’ We see this in an angel, who is one substance yet none the less consists of three things, namely form, spiritual matter, and their conjunction. Yet because of this it appears to differ from the divine likeness, which it cannot match, because it contains matter in itself and is affected by God over time. It is also subject to many other accidental characteristics, none of which rightly pertain to God, who is a pure, eternal, and infinite form, subject in no way to any accidental characteristics. Now what is said of an angel can also be said of a human being, since it displays a certain trinity and unity: it is one in number but composed of a soul, a body, and their conjunction. And this soul, while it is one (though with triple powers—namely the Intellect, Memory, and Will), is also completed or constituted by its spiritual matter, form, and their conjunction. This is the same for the sun and the lion, fish, eagle, tree, flower, fruit, stone, and for any creature naturally.

This similitude of the divine Trinity that shines thus in a creature, since it is highly lovely and beautiful, will lend great beauty and ornament when applied by a speaker in a speech.’

2.4.2 God matches all creatures as the One who created them and sustains them in existence. Moreover, those that act though a virtual power do so much better than those that act through nature. Thus the human body uses the vegetative and sensitive powers of the soul. And therefore God, who participates in the highest degree with all creatures, wished to assume human nature and become a man in order to participate naturally with all creatures through human nature, since a human being naturally participates with all creatures in some way.

Since this exemplum is beautiful in itself, whoever applies it to speech will greatly beautify sermons with it.

2.4.3 Jesus Christ, in order to save fallen humankind from death and redeem it from the power of the devil, chose to undertake many labors as a man and even to undergo the harshest death.  Moreover He wished to be poor, so that His poverty would make us rich and would offer an example of struggle for the salvation of many and for the common good, as well as of contempt for the riches of this world. Indeed it is a demand incumbent on one to accept instead toil, pain, and even death for the sake of those things. Above all the riches of this world should be despised and pleasures scorned. So this should be the objective of a virtuous man, in order to serve the will of God and hold God fast in loving embraces.

This kind of exemplum applied to the purpose of a speech beautifies and adorns the speech. Its beauty and ornament thus creates the fullness of beauty in the Imagination, Memory, and Intellect of the listeners.

2.4.4 In an angel’s nature its act of understanding is so matched to its power of understanding and its memory to its essence, that its understanding is as great as its Intellect. And its essence is as great as its Memory and what it remembers. And likewise for its Will, because its love and desire are as great as the Will that it essentially and naturally has. Now this happens so that the whole angel can enjoy God through its Will and contemplate God through its Intellect, and be filled with the whole grace and glory of God.

The proposed example should be applied to the debt that obliges a human being to serve God with the Intellect, Memory, and Will.

2.4.5 Now this kind of service is the reason why humanity stands midway between irrational creatures and God, since those creatures (unlike humans) cannot of themselves serve God. This is because God is inconceivable to their Imagination or Senses. They are capable of serving their Creator through humans as an intermediary. However, irrational creatures serve God through just people, not through sinful people. If sinners receive services from irrational creatures, they still do not render due service to God.

When the aforesaid example is applied to the proposed material of a speech, the speech will be beautiful and ornate as long as it shows the great obedience that just people owe to God, and the great iniquity of sinners who, offending God, debauch creatures who are innocent and pure in themselves, making them serve those who oppose the will of their Creator.

2.4.6 A certain bishop distinguished in honor and wealth sought to enjoy poverty by renouncing episcopal dignity and lived next to a certain city in great poverty. He wore coarse clothes, ate little, and led a harsh, hard life. But he did this for the sake of people’s admiration, so they would praise him, and hold him in honor and esteem. He enjoyed and craved them speaking among themselves about his austere life and resignation from the bishopric.

Speech will be beautiful with this example, if it is applied to the discussion of hypocritical people who do everything in order to be seen by others. They renounce the world in order to receive people’s praise and commendation and to be honored by them.

2.4.7 The sun has great brightness and naturally lacks both heat and dryness. Therefore it shares the nature of fire more than any other element, because the sun and fire coincide in light and brightness. Hence the sun also propagates its power more in fire though its heat than in air through wetness, or in water through coldness, or in earth through dryness.

One might apply this example to showing how God through grace and blessing participates more with people most like God in goodness, virtue, and holiness, than with those who resemble God less in this way. This application will make speech shine greatly with lovely beauty.

2.4.8 The lion, thanks to its strength, is so courageous that it fears no one who comes at it with lances, swords, or spears. But if one goes against it with a long rope, dragging it along the ground, it will quickly flee terrified with fear. This happens because from natural instinct “one victory does not fear another, but rather skill and knowledge.” Hence the lion fears being caught with a rope and bound captive through cunning.

This example renders speech lovely, if applied to fighting words or ideas.

2.4.9 It is a property of the eagle to see farther than other birds. This happens because it flies higher and grasps and sees more keenly than other birds the light and power of the sun.

Insert this exemplum when the sermon is about saintly people, who contemplate God more purely and love God more deeply than other people.

2.4.10 Marine fish are born and live in salt water yet none the less are not salty. Rather, so that people can eat them, they need salt because of their sweetness.

This example adorns a speaker’s words when applied in sermons concerning just people. This is because they, afflicted by tribulations and labors in the bitter sea of this world, maintain their sweet peace of mind and serve God with patience. And through patience, which cannot exist without acceptance of suffering, they obtain peace and rest.

2.4.11 It is told that a crane became so aged that it could no longer catch fish. Realizing this, it carefully considered how to provide itself with food. Once it devised a scheme for a new way to catch fish for food from a certain pond, it ceased fishing for an entire day (that is from dawn until dusk). A certain crab who lived in that pond, seeing the crane refrain from fishing, asked why it was not fishing in its usual way. It replied that it was not fishing because it was filled with sadness, since fishermen were coming to fish in that pond and to capture all the fish with their fishing. When the crab heard this, it went to the fish of the pond and related the crane’s words to them. Then all the fish, terrified at hearing this, came and asked it to advise them about how to escape from the fishermen. The crane fraudulently replied that he would carry them all, one after another, from that pond to another, where no fisherman could practice any fishing. The fish were greatly pleased by the advice they heard from the crane. The were so desirous of escaping the nets of the fishermen that they came daily to the crane, to be carried to the pond safe from fishing.

But the crane, full of fraud, chose the ones that were best to eat and carried them off to a hill where it ate them. With this scheme it had fish to eat for a long time without the effort of fishing. But the crab, whom it refused to carry because it was not good to eat, said to the crane “Why don’t you carry me to the pond like the other fish?” When the crane heard this, it extended its neck, which the crab at once ascended and held as tightly as possible with its arms. Then the crane carried the crab to the hill where it was eating the fish and also wished to eat the crab. When the crab saw the bones of the fish that the crane had already eaten, but saw no pond, it recognized the crane’s deception, wrung its neck, and left it dead. After the crane had fallen lifeless to the ground, the crab returned to the original pond, assembled the fish, and explained to them the hoax undertaken by the crane.

This example will beautify speech, if told to denounce those who, losing their powers in old age, aid themselves through fraud and falsehood, but are none the less caught in their own snares.

2.4.12 From a story of the ancients one learns that a fox asked the lion, king of beasts, to make her part of his household and council. When the greyhound, who was in the king’s council, heard this, he spoke to the king, saying and persuading him as best he could not to accept the fox into the court, because she was of low birth and committed many frauds against chickens, which she ate. When this came to the ears of the fox, she told the king that he should consider more the wisdom and reliability, rather than the noble lineage, of the beasts whom he should have in his council. Indeed, the lower the birth of a beast, the more obedient subject it would be to the king.

When the king heard this, he immediately assented to the fox’s requests and made her part of his council. When this reached the ears of the leopard and lion, who belonged to the royal council, it displeased them greatly. So they said to the king: “No king should have beasts of low birth in his council, even if the beast seems clever, because all its cleverness and effort end in treachery. And it plans frauds, and studies how to heap up wealth and to gain high honors, and how to raise up its family and low-born relatives against the nobles. On the other hand, those who are noble and of venerable lineage are always ashamed and afraid to undertake frauds or treachery, lest they bring a stain on their nobility. Hence these cause harm to no one fraudulently.” But the king ignored their advice, and the fox, along with its accomplices, achieved so much through their fraud and cleverness that the king became angry at the greyhound, leopard, and lion and indignantly ejected them from his council and household. After this, the fox cleverly arranged for one of its children to become the royal judge and for another one to hold the main power after it in the king’s household. Moreover, she persuaded the king to bring the partridge and rooster into his council, and to make the rabbit his porter, the hare his notary, and the dove his herald. The fox arranged this because all these animals fear it. Once this was done, the fox was mistress of the royal court and did whatever she pleased regarding the king and all his council. Hence it rightly happened that the king, thanks to the bad advice that he received, badly conducted his affairs and those of the realm (this was because all the counselors feared the fox and did not dare give sound advice, but favored the fox in everything). Throughout his entire kingdom and in many other regions he was held in little esteem and despised by many as well.

This example will lend beauty to speech if it is narrated to princes and prelates who suffer things similar to the king of beasts.

2.4.13 It is said that two monkeys were placing wood upon a certain lantern which they thought was a fire. And they blew vigorously on the wood and lantern, so that a fire would arise from it and they could warm themselves. Now near this place was a tree where a dove and crow abided. And the dove repeatedly told the monkeys that the lantern was not a fire, and that they labored in vain because they would not get a fire to arise from it. But the crow insistently reprehended the dove, saying that she did not counsel well or justly because she counseled the stubborn and obdurate who refuse to accept sound advice or to correct themselves. Even if one recommends something for their honor, they do not profit from it, and one encounters only trouble and harm. But the dove ignored the crow’s advice, and descended to the ground to show the monkeys that the lantern was not a fire. As soon as she reached the ground, the monkeys seized, killed, and ate her.

This example, when inserted into a speech, lends beauty to the speech if one tells it to those persons who face trouble, harm, and anger in seeking to correct stubborn people who perversely reject correction, and instead turn against their correctors and reprove them more harshly.

2.4.14 Human beings by nature possess a natural goodness, Memory, Intellect, Will, and other natural capacities that require moral beauty. The latter informs and adorns them, so that they please God and attain the life of glory by doing good works, so that the Memory possesses good remembering, and so that the Intellect and Will receive good understanding and good loving.

The preceding example will lend beauty to speech, if it is told to those who befoul their natural qualities with their sins and vices, which are a stain on their character.

2.4.15 Fire with its heat adorns air, which is pleased to receive heat from fire. But with its dryness it makes the air light, which displeases the air. Hence in undergoing this effect, it receives from fire the dryness that is contrary to its wetness.

This example for adorning speech should be told to those who in one way do what pleases their friends and in another way plan to do what is bad and unpleasant for them.

2.4.16 Some trees bear so much fruit that the branches of the tree break from the excessive weight of the fruit. This signifies that people should do so many good works that they are in continuous labor.

This exemplum would be beautiful to recite to those who, devoted to pleasures, neglect to do the good things that they should.

2.4.17 Trees produce branches, leaves, and blossoms for the sake of the fruit that is the noblest part of a tree. For fruit serves human beings more than any other part of a tree. Moreover, through the fruit of a tree its species is maintained.

This example will make speech beautiful, if it is recited to those doing the contrary. Imagine those who strive to be important people, to be preferred above others in order to acquire wealth, to be exalted with honors, to delight in pleasures, or to make their friends and relatives rich and honored, rather than serving and praising God, who is the true and sweetest fruit and the end of perpetual life.

2.4.18 The rose is a beautiful flower to hold and smell even though it is born and plucked among thorns. This shows that the virtues acquired with great labor and much zeal are beautiful and pleasing like flowers. Even though they are gathered and maintained with great effort and difficulty, when maintained they grow even more.

One might recite this example to people seeking virtue, when they feel the keen difficulty or labor of acquiring and keeping it, and are struggling to retain it. This will form a speech of marvelous, lovely beauty.

2.4.19 The lily is the loveliest among flowers. It signifies that one should not be proud. Its beauty comes from one tall stalk in the middle, which bends its head toward the ground, and is adorned with a few deep yellow stamens. These signify that shining gold cannot be compared to beautiful humility and a holy person.

This example should be presented to those persons who rise up in pride because of beauty, honors, or wealth.

2.4.20 Flowers receive greater influence from the sun than from another star, and the sun is greater and lovelier than the other planets. Hence it happens that all flowers open in the morning when the sun rises and turn toward the sun.

This example would be beautiful to tell to proud and arrogant people who refuse to thank God for their existence or for the other goods that they have received, and who fail to regard God with the due reverence and honor.

2.4.21 Gold, because of its most beautiful color, because it is more disposed than other metals to being worked, and because the work fashioned from it is more durable than work from any other metal, is most esteemed and zealously held as treasure.

Such an example should be recited to people who talk about gold, prize it, and hold it in the treasury of their hearts more than they do God, who created gold, is Lord of all things, and is better, lovelier, and more durable than any creature.

2.4.22 Gold is prettier than iron, but the purpose of iron is nobler and more useful. This is because iron is more necessary to people, even though gold surpasses iron in color.

This example should be told to men who enjoy adorning their wives with gold, in order to make them look lovelier, rather than the purpose of multiplying the human race.

2.4.23 Justice makes forked gallows lovelier than a royal cup (even one of gold), whose purpose is drinking.

This should be recited to a king who loves gold more than justice, even though the king exists in order to serve justice, and not to drink from gold cups.

2.4.24 The emerald surpasses the calamite stone in beauty. The calamite stone none the less is more powerful than the emerald, even though it is a lesser gem.

Whoever tells this examplum to men who love women more for beauty than for goodness, will greatly adorn a speech.

2.4.25 The recounted above provide instruction for one to confer excellence on a speech by narrating beautiful exempla and by applying them to the purpose of speech to which they pertain. One can seek, find, and tell these exempla according to the instruction that we have given, and find other similar ones about different matters as is necessary.


On Beautiful Ornaments

2.5.0 There are four beautiful ornaments, namely dignities, colors, gesture, and apparel. By dignities I understand Goodness, Virtue, Power, Duration, and so forth. The colors are beautiful forms, beautiful materials, and beautiful ends. Gestures in speaking include joyful countenance, and words delivered by speakers without coughing, spitting, moving their hands, or shuffling their feet. Beautiful apparel involves people wearing beautiful clothes in order to make their speech pleasing. With these four one can make speech sweet and beautiful, and avoid the foulness of vices.

2.5.1 The goodness of a king and his other dignities adorn the king’s speech when he speaks. Likewise for those who apply the king’s dignity in their speech. For instance, if one were to say “If the king who has great goodness, dominion, and dignity speaks with love and humility to his people: ‘You, who are a poor knight, should not speak angrily, haughtily or discourteously to your peer, and much less to someone more worthy than you or even to one less noble whom you know’.”

2.5.2 Similarly, someone who says “The queen who is beautiful is good,” adorns the goodness of the queen with her beauty. And the converse likewise happens, as when one says “The queen who is good is also very lovely.” With these colors one possesses the knowledge of adorning speech, and of gracing beautiful nouns with beautiful adjectives or beautiful adjectives with beautiful nouns through suitable coloring.

2.5.3 One who speaks with beautiful gestures greatly ornaments a speech. Just as when someone speaking to the king, turning to the king’s face, keeps a joyful expression and avoids coughing or spitting, so that in this way the words will be continuous and maintained in a unified voice. No less should one keep the body straight, hands still, and feet still, displaying toward the king the humility of reverence and honor that ought to be exhibited to the king and lord by any subject.

2.5.4 Beautiful and decent apparel, which one who speaks knows well to wear, are beautiful ornaments for making words appear beautiful, while foul and vile apparel on the other hand degrades rather than adorns, since it insinuates the speaker’s poverty and indigence.

2.5.5 Someone who says “The queen who is beautiful is not good” speaks foul words. These can be recast in this way: “It is a serious matter that the beautiful queen of great nobility and exalted excellence, since she is the wife of a king, should be defiled by the stain of any sin, because through the stain of sin all beauty is befouled.” Likewise whoever says “The queen who is unattractive is not good” speaks foul words. But whoever says “May it please God that the queen who is unattractive and is not good flourish with beauty and goodness, and thus be worthy to be the consort of a king,” speaks words adorned with good intention, which is the material for forming beautiful speech.

2.5.6 The manner explained above provides instruction for knowing beautiful and well-composed ornaments. With these one who must speak will know how to adorn speech and avoid foulness in it.



On Beautiful Expressions

2.6.0 Expressions are beautiful through beautiful conjunctions and lovely disjunctions of nouns, pronouns, verbs, participles, and adverbs. From these two ways one will know how to speak well and to compose attractive speech. The instruction that we provide will be the material and the subject for making beautiful expressions, and for composing beautiful clauses in practice. In order to make beautiful expressions it is necessary to investigate beautiful conjunctions and disjunctions between one subject and another, between verbs, between participles, between pronouns, and between adverbs. One must be careful that every substantive is determined by a proper adjective and that a suitable verb, participle, pronoun, or adverb is joined to a noun. Those who wish to maintain beauty in expression must proceed through all these steps, as the following examples show.

2.6.1 Someone who says “The queen and the lady-in-waiting are beautiful and good” makes beautiful conjunctions between a noun, a substantive noun, and an adjective. But saying “The queen and the serving-girl are beautiful and good” would use foul conjunctions.

2.6.2 Someone who says “The king and the queen love one another” beautifully joins a verb to substantive nouns. But not someone who says “The king and queen hate each other,” since the verb “to hate” is not beautiful. Similarly someone who says “The king and queen are intelligent and loving” proffers speech ornately, but not by saying “negligent and hateful.”

2.6.3 Moreover someone who says “The king and queen regard one another beautifully and lovingly” beautifully joins verbs, substantives, and adverbs. The contrary of this would be saying “The king and queen regard one another with evil and anger.”

2.6.4 Whoever says “You all and he are lovely and good” beautifully conjoins an adjective, verb, and pronoun. But not someone speaking in a contrary fashion.

2.6.5 Whoever says “It is beautiful and good to do the beautiful and good” makes beautiful conjunctions among an adjective, verb, and substantive. The contrary of this would be speaking in a contrary fashion.

2.6.6 It would also be beautifully spoken for someone to state that “It is beautiful to be free and fervent in doing good” because this would beautifully conjoin an adjective, verb, and participle. Hence one should not do the contrary.

2.6.7 Someone who says “The king is well and beautifully good and handsome” makes beautiful conjunctions through an adjective, noun, verb, and adverb. But not, however, one who says the contrary.

2.6.8 Someone who says “He who does great good and avoids great evil is good and wise,” makes beautiful conjunctions through a pronoun and a verb.

2.6.9 Someone who says “He who is intelligent and pleasing, is wise and courteous,” embellishes the statement with beautiful conjunctions among a pronoun, verb, and participle.

2.6.10 Someone who says “He who speaks beautifully and he who listens wisely,” makes a beautiful connection or conjunction with a pronoun, verb, and adverb of speaking as well as of listening.

2.6.11 Someone who says “One who is understanding loving speaks” makes a beautiful and decorous combination with a verb and participle.

2.6.12 Some who says “He who speaks beautifully and sweetly” confects this statement from a verb and an adverb.

2.6.13 Someone who says “He who is loving responds sweetly” makes a beautiful conjunction with a participle and an adverb.

2.6.14 From the types enumerated above one can investigate beautiful and fitting conjunctions. These are called beautiful in so far as they occur among concordant and beautiful words, since a conjunction nature is naturally incapable of being beautiful when established between foul and beautiful words or among contrary words. For example, if one were to say “The king is handsome and the queen is unattractive” or “The king is good and the queen bad.”

2.6.15 This same manner should apply to disjunctions. For example, if someone were to speak thus: “If you request a horse from the king, either he will give it to you, or if he does not give it to you, he will respond courteously.” This disjunction is beautiful if compared to the following: “The king will give you a horse or he will not.” What has been said about these should be said about anything similar.


On Beautiful Proverbs

2.7.0 A proverb is a brief statement containing a great idea. The proverb is an introduction to the speaker’s words, conferring courage and wisdom. Therefore we will include in this art some beautiful proverbs for speakers to compose and adorn their speech, applying each one to a fitting form, matter, and end, according to the needs of the matter, form, and end of the speech. Hence we have included proverbs about different matters, which are written below. In this way many and lovely proverbs are available for many speeches and ideas for speaking.

2.7.1 Do not entreat God more for your own good than for the honor with which people should exalt God.

One grasps from the idea of this proverb that one should love the honor of God more than oneself. Moreover from this sort of exposition of a proverb, which is appropriate to it, one can investigate expositions appropriate to all the other proverbs by considering a similar sort of exposition.

2.7.2 If you obey God, your soul will live in peace.

2.7.3 Whoever demands without goodness asks to receive nothing.

2.7.4 Those who give of themselves to you resemble God more than those who accept from you what is yours.

2.7.5 Surely you do not hate anyone that you want to love you.

2.7.6 When you want to speak or keep silent, consider which will benefit you most.

2.7.7 No life is worth a good death, nor an easy escape from a bad death.

2.7.8 Don’t seek recognition so much that it would make you appear foolish.

2.7.9 A man who boasts of great status greatly tires his servant.

2.7.10 If you plan to buy or sell, don’t sell simply to get rich.

2.7.11 Hold nothing in scorn that could bring you honor.

2.7.12 In any business where you plan to get rich, be careful that it doesn’t cost you your good standing.

2.7.13 In any affair where you give advice, carefully consider whether it might harm you.

2.7.14 Don’t plan to reveal the secrets of your heart to someone who can’t give you good advice.

2.7.15 Have nothing to do with someone who teaches you falsely.

2.7.16 Don’t reveal things that may bring deception upon you.

2.7.17 Don’t let your soul want to learn things that allow evil to befall you.

2.7.18 Don’t praise someone so much that you can’t prove your praise.

2.7.19 Someone who follows is often afraid, but someone who flees is more afraid.

2.7.20 Don’t expect gifts or presents from someone who doesn’t use reason.

2.7.21 Don’t repent greatly about something, unless it won’t cause a great evil to happen to you.

2.7.22 Criticize no one, unless you do it with reason and courtesy.

2.7.23 If someone criticizes you, react gently if you want to have peace.

2.7.24 Don’t be too courteous, because what’s unnecessary becomes foolish.

2.7.25 Whoever has love, has everyone and becomes master of all.

2.7.26 Don’t be too close to someone who is too angry.

2.7.27 The neighbor of a wicked man is known to struggle with many burdens.

2.7.28 Don’t try to become so rich that you become known as a beggar.

2.7.29 Illness suits someone who seeks ill when healthy.

2.7.30 Don’t cultivate virtue simply to earn praise from others.

2.7.31 Anyone graced with great holiness is vexed by pride in many ways.

2.7.32 Esteem the benefit in any sadness more than any foolish joy.

2.7.33 Don’t threaten someone who could seize and hold you.

2.7.34 It’s better to be wrongly defamed than wrongly praised.

2.7.35 In everything you undertake, consider where it might end.

2.7.36 Don’t let truth slip away with falsehood no matter how profitable it might be.

2.7.37 Whoever dismisses good and accepts evil, doesn’t know what he’s choosing.

2.7.38 It’s better to refuse a request courteously than to grant it rudely.

2.7.39 Unless you believe, you cannot understand or escape doubt.

2.7.40 Whatever you have learned, teach; and get busy learning what you don’t know by asking.

2.7.41 Don’t try to disgrace something in which there is no shame.

2.7.42 Whoever lacks virtue lives alone and also dies alone in the end.

2.7.43 Use virtue to battle with vice, and you will be victorious.

2.7.44 Anyone defended with only one virtue is easily conquered.

2.7.45 Don’t go looking for what you won’t want to find.

2.7.46 Cowardice is no friend of valor, nor unworthiness of honor.

2.7.47 Don’t set out so early in the morning that you lose your way.

2.7.48 Don’t rush to know more in death than when you are healthy and can do good.

2.7.49 Whoever does not love God in using wealth becomes completely unworthy of God.

2.7.50 Each proverb is thus written out for presentation in the proper place and time. These explanations suffice regarding the second part of this book, which teaches how to create beauty in speech and weave together lovely words. This knowledge consists in maintaining proper order among the seven members of this part, through their material, end, and form.



On the Third Part of this Book, Namely on Knowledge

3.0 Having explained the things that pertain to the second part of this book, it is necessary to take up the third part, which is about knowledge. Now in this part we wish to present the eighteen Principles and nine Rules of the General Art. Thus a speaker will know how to inform speech with the appearance of beauty by applying those Principles to it, according to the procedure of this art. First therefore it must be stated that these principles are the following: namely Goodness, Greatness, Duration, Power, Wisdom, Will, Virtue, Truth, Glory, Difference, Concord, Contrariety, Beginning, Middle, End, Superiority, Equality, Inferiority. Through these eighteen Principles we will discourse, showing explicitly what beauty and decorum they contain. Since they contain all subject-matters for speaking, however varied or diverse, they provide clear knowledge about composing speech on any subjectmatter with the due beauty. Moreover it should be carefully observed—before we proceed to these Principles—that in the beginning of each three things should be sought, namely the form, matter, and end, which we mentioned in the first part.


On the Goodness of Speech

3.1.0 The matter of good speech is good words, but the form of that speech results from the composition and arrangement of these good words. For the goodness of form and matter should come from the end, so that those arranged for a good end will be good and those for the best end, best. From these three, properly arranged together, arises the beautiful form through which speech is deemed beautiful.

3.1.1 Therefore anyone who names God, angels, humans, heaven, earth, and so forth, or likewise Goodness, Greatness, and things similar to these, proffers good words. These are the material of good speech, as was explained above. So someone who says “God the creator of humanity and of many other natural goods” (such as the soul, the body, and likewise others such as humankind) proceeds from the natural goods indicated to moral goods. These are the virtues, like justice, temperance, and so forth. Likewise for things made by art, such as castles, houses, and things of this sort. The construction of these adorns natural goods for service of God the creator.

3.1.2 Anyone who in these things applies to a good end the matter of goodness, for whose sake it exists, makes a good form to come forth from these two. And from these three will result the beautiful form of speech that is the light through which good words will also be beautiful. When this is considered thus, it provides the knowledge that enables one to find the beautiful form of words through which one makes, composes, and arranges beautiful speech. Thus these words are beautiful and good: “God who is supremely good created in humans a good soul, good body, and good elemental, vegetative, sensitive, and imaginative powers, with which one does good works for serving God the creator.”

3.2.0 Words appear great and excellent when they come from a great and excellent form, matter, and end. The matter is truly excellent and great when composed of great and excellent terms. This is so when someone speaks of God, the angels, heaven, humans, or other great and lofty things and their effects. This is because all these terms are excellent both by reason of great excellence and by the greatness of their subjects, which in themselves possess greatness and excellent loftiness.

3.2.1 Hence from these sorts of terms, properly composed and suitably arranged together toward a great and lofty end, there issues a beautiful and great form that makes speech great and lofty. And hence from these three principles—namely end, form, and material—results a certain beauty through which speech shines with great and lofty loveliness.

3.2.2 Thus someone might tell how God who has such excellent greatness created a great world and this greatness for the sake of a great end. That is, God created angels and humans so that through their great memory they would have great remembrance, through their great intellect great understanding, and through their great will great desire for praising, honoring, and humbly serving God. For it is fitting that God be continuously held in remembrance, much understood, and fervently loved by those angels and humans created by God.

3.2.3 There is moreover another end of very great loftiness and excellence. Namely, that God created a great world, and joined in it many great parts, so that there would be one most excellent human being, Lord Jesus Christ. Christ would excel all things with his greatness thanks to the greatness of uncreated goodness and of created greatness. In this way he would be the end and form of living for all other things through human nature. The latter is conjoined to divine nature in Jesus in a single person, so that Christ might be one God and have a name above every name. To it all things in heaven, on earth, and below bow down, because God’s is the most beautiful name.

3.2.4 There is moreover another very great and lofty end, namely paradise. It has great matter and great form and in it great rewards and immense glory are bestowed, which have great duration, because they last perpetually without end.

3.2.5 One finds as well another mode of great speech, such as the story told about a certain Roman emperor. He had prepared a great army to go to India. On the day that he chose to leave for war, it happened that a certain poor woman seized his reins, and sought justice from him for the murder of her son. Now since the woman said she would not release the emperor unless he did justice to her son and to him who had killed her son, the king (as he was truly just) according to justice took his son prisoner and handed him over to the woman for incarceration until he returned from India. Likewise one can tell of the magnificent excellence of Alexander, who displayed magnificence in awarding the best city to a knight who hardly deserved a castle.’

3.2.6 These examples and these words are great and excellent, adorned with a certain color of beauty. And they should be recited for a suitable end and as the material of the sermons demands, maintaining the manner of expression (which is noted above). This requires the speaker to deliver these things to the audience beautifully, fearlessly, and with a firm resolve, just as the excellence and loftiness of this speech requires.

3.3 The duration of speech is twofold. First, it exists in the actualization of the voice, which exists just as long as the production of words. It also exists retained in the Memory of people who, retaining the words heard in their Memory and understanding them in their Intellect, afterwards recite them when moved to do so. Hence, if they are recited to a fitting end—as is proper—words will be beautiful. So it is with the words of the Gospel, all the Sacred Scriptures, and the stories of those glorious people who, although they have left this world, none the less live on in memory. And therefore they are recited to us continuously, so that we will imitate their example. But if speech is directed to a bad end—like the writings of Mohammed and similar things—the speech will be evil and foul, even if people retain it in memory.

3.4 Speech is said to be of great power in so far as the various words included in it signify great and sublime power. So it is when someone speaks of the infinite power of God: “In God the Father exists an infinite power of generation, by which He produces the Son equal to Him in all things. And in the Father and Son exists an equally infinite power of inspiration, by which They breath forth the Holy Spirit equal to Them. And in the whole Trinity exists an infinite power, which no effect can equal.” This speech about the power of God is very beautiful to recite, if applied to the desired and appropriate end. The same occurs with an angel, who after God possesses very great power. Its intellect, if elevated by the light of glory, can see God and its Will can love God. It also has a natural power for understanding all things—whether in heaven or on earth—as long as they are not superior in nature to it. The power of other natural beings, such as fire and things like this, can similarly be applied to one’s purpose. And so, if they are adapted to a suitable material, speech about them will be lofty and beautiful.

3.5.0 Someone wishing to speak wisely should first choose the matter, arrange it for a proper end, and prepare it according to proper form, so that the speech will be orderly and beautiful. At least ten conditions should be observed regarding the matter of a speech.

3.5.1 First, the speaker, before beginning to speak, should diligently meditate on what to say. Second, in order to determine how much to say and to avoid the defect of excessive brevity or of superfluous length, one should maintain a discreet medium. Third, one should await an opportune time to speak, because words will not please if presented at an inappropriate time. Fourth, one should observe a suitable place for speaking. Fifth, one should consider the status of one’s audience, since some words should be said to someone of low status that should not be said to someone of highest status. Sixth, the speech should be beneficial, since what lacks utility cannot be beautiful. Seventh, the speech should be fair, because if it’s unfair, it’s worthless. Eighth, it should be honest and not harmful, otherwise it will be neither pleasing nor beautiful. Ninth, it must be virtuous and true. The tenth and last condition is that the speech be applied to a feasible end.

3.5.2 The matter of discreet speech requires these ten conditions. And when the aforesaid conditions are observed in speech, and the words are—according to the matter, form, and end to which the speaker’s intention tends—properly arranged, from such an arrangement a most beautiful form will result. From this the speaker’s account will be as pleasing and lovely as light.

3.6.0 In order to be amicable, speech requires six conditions, which we offer here in this order: namely love, quantity, time, place, truth, and quality.

3.6.1 First, the matter of speech requires love—that is, love between the speaker and the audience—and words that are useful, fruitful, and fair, since speech cannot be loved if it lacks fairness and usefulness in itself. Second, the matter of amicable speech demands a precise and proper quantity, since if it is exceedingly long or deficiently brief, it cannot be lovable. Third, it requires an opportune, fitting time for speaking and should end with beautiful, useful words. Fourth, the matter of amicable speech also requires a suitable place where it can be aptly and fittingly delivered. Fifth, it requires words containing truth in themselves, since false words are hateful to the wise. Sixth, the matter of amicable speech requires words whose qualities match the common qualities of the speakers and listeners. Imagine how both a speaker and a listener might be loyal, courteous, wise, and discreet.

3.6.2 Speech that should be amicable must observe all these conditions. If they are well observed and properly organized in a speech, their result is the amicable form that makes a speech beautiful.


On Virtue

3.7 If God put virtues in plants and stones, far more did God do so in speech, which is virtuous with the moral and theological virtues existing in the speaker. And therefore when a speaker has virtuous words, whose subject or matter is virtue, it colors their form. Thanks to this coloring the form is beautiful. And those hearing this ornate form accept the words with delight, and favorably incline their ears and heart to listening.


On Truth

3.8.0 There are four principles from which the matter of true speech is composed, namely expression, tense, verb, and noun.

3.8.1 Now expression is the subject where speech is set. Tense however is when words are placed in the expression according to present or past time. The verb is necessary as a result, since speech should happen through it, as when one says “The queen is beautiful.” The noun is also necessary in words of truth, because without it the speech cannot be called beautiful. The matter of true speech is composed of these four. The end of true speech is indeed what makes the speech true. The form is the order in which the speech is formed. Then from these three a certain form of beauty subsequently issues, which renders true speech more beautiful. This nevertheless is done so that the form, matter, and end participate in beautiful, good, and virtuous words. For without these the beautiful form which makes the speech true and beautiful cannot arise.

3.8.2 There is moreover another mode of speech where it seems true in one way but appears false in another. Thus one might say “The king gave to me a horse, which horse the king did not give to me.” Now speech is only true in so far as it is set forth in expression and time through a noun and a verb. But this is false in so far as the matter of the king and horse was not set in past time, that is before the knight had said “The king gave to me a horse.”

3.8.3 There is another, third mode of true speech, when four conditions render the speech beautiful. Some true words are proven through necessary arguments, but some by authorities, and some by witnesses. Some gain their force of truth from similitudes and conjectures. And because understanding, which responds to proof by necessary reason, is the proper act of the Intellect, the belief that responds to proof based on authority is the appropriated act of the Intellect. Therefore the Intellect understands more and assents more to the truth of words strengthened with necessary arguments—which thereby seem more beautiful to it—than to words based on authority. An exception however are the words of Holy Scripture that rest on divine truth, which is a greater authority than any kind of human insight.


On Glory

3.9.0 In order for speech to be pleasing and glorious, its matter requires eight principles that are especially principal, namely promise, praise, narrative, truth, goodness, greatness, usefulness, and loveability.

3.9.1  Now the first of the things that the matter of glorious speech requires is promise. For when a speaker promises an audience many gifts, indulgences, and favors, the speech becomes very pleasing to those listeners. Second, the matter of glorious speech requires it to contain praise: that is, the speakers should pronounce those whom they address praiseworthy, since if the speech appears insulting, it will lack glory and pleasantness. Third, it also requires a glorious narrative, which is achieved when the beautiful deeds of great people are recounted and it requires that they be good. Fourth, the matter of such speech requires words that are true or at least verisimilar, since if they are regarded otherwise, they will be irksome to the listeners. Fifth, the matter of glorious speech also requires words that are good, and thus pleasing as well, because the good is what all things desire.’ Sixth, it is necessary that speech contain greatness, since when something is recounted about great deeds, the words are more pleasing than when propounded about something minor. Seventh, it should be about something useful, since the usefulness of the narrative renders the listeners favorable and attentive. Eighth, it is truly necessary that these words contain loveability, since they please thanks to the love that they indicate, and inspire more attentive listening.

3.9.2 The matter of glorious speech requires all these conditions. And when it is properly arranged according to them, so that the form is directed toward the end for the sake of which the words are recounted, there results a certain form of beauty that makes the glorious words pleasing and beautiful.


On Difference, Concord, and Contrariety

3.10.0 All speech must exist either in difference or in concord or in contrariety. The form that completes the matter of its subject moves it toward its end, so that from the matter, form, and end results that certain formal beauty that adorns speech in difference.

3.10.1 Hence a speaker should attend to the difference in words, in order to distinguish between one word and another so that in each one the proper syllables are wholly maintained, and so that they are pronounced with the proper accentuation. In this way the difference in words shines forth in speaking. Anyone saying to someone “ama ardenter” should not pronounce these two words so fast that the “a” ending the first word (namely “ama”) and the “a” beginning the second (namely “ardenter’') run together in speaking. Otherwise the words would be confused, with clipped syllables and wrong accentuation, which renders speech ugly. Therefore they should be pronounced more distinctly and slowly.

3.10.2 One must moreover diligently consider that among different words some have masculine gender, some feminine, and some neuter. Regarding these one must very diligently strive to join together the ones that display the greatest agreement. So, there is greater agreement between masculine and masculine than between masculine and feminine, between feminine and feminine than between feminine and masculine or neuter, and between neuter and neuter than between neuter and feminine. Hence one should say “The king is handsome,” “The queen is beautiful,” “The king has a beautiful palace.” And so universally in speech involving these genders or the genera of any other differences,’ wherever one finds greater concord and agreement, there will be greater beauty in the conjunction of words. Thus between “king” and “good” there is greater agreement, because they are of one gender, than between “king” and “goodness,” which are of different genders. And this role is understood to hold in all similar cases.

3.10.3 Furthermore, one must notice that contrariety is also found in speech and words. For “good” and “evil” are contrary through contrary ends. “White” and “black” are contrary because they differ most in the genus of color. And likewise “fire” and “water” because they have contrary qualities. Therefore the speaker should diligently consider the quality and quantity of contrariety contained in single words. For the contrariety of “good” and “evil” seems greater than of “white” and “black,” and of “heat” and “cold” than of “black” and “cold,” since blackness and coldness are not properly contrary but rather disparate. And one should say this about similar contrarieties.

3.10.4 Since contrariety ought to exist between the speaker and audience—just as between a lawyer and an opponent—the speaker should consider these contrarieties. This is because the greater the contrariety among words, the more beautiful will be speech about that matter. Contrariety of this kind occurs in speech so that it will be directed toward the good end of true speech through justice. We can explain this in an example as well. For we see that a preacher reviles and destroys lust more by commending and urging the chastity contrary to it, than by justice. And likewise the preacher denounces misdeed and injustice more through justice than through chastity. And likewise fire is more contrary to water through heat (which is a proper quality of fire) than through dryness, which is proper to earth and not to fire. And one should say this about the rest. If however the speakers’ words ought to seek concord, as among friends, then one should do the contrary.


On Beginning, Middle, and End

3.11.0 The matter of speech requires a beginning, middle, and end. And the form of speech consists in their arrangement, because from their order results a certain form of beauty.

3.11.1 Hence someone intending to speak, before starting, should diligently ponder and determine what to say in the beginning, what in the middle, what in the end, and what last of all. And there is an example of this provided above in the chapter that deals with order.

3.11.2 Since moreover some words are of masculine gender, some feminine, and some neuter, the speaker should prudently and carefully arrange these, in order to place words of masculine gender first. Those of neuter gender should be placed in the middle, but those of feminine gender in the end. Words of neuter gender should be placed in the middle because they share in nature with words of either gender— namely masculine and feminine—or because by avoiding either they are a middle between either gender. Hence one ought to say “Good is the king and good the queen,” and not “Good is the queen and good the king.” And likewise one ought to say “The king has a beautiful gold apple that he gives to the queen.” But if one were to say “One beautiful gold apple holds the king, which he gives to the queen,” it would not be beautifully nor well said according to rhetoric.


On Superiority, Equality, and Inferiority

3.12.0 All speech is either superior or inferior or equal. And all these are the matter of speech and the form of speech consists in their order. In so far as the form is directed toward a fitting end, from which the listeners understand and grasp the speaker’s end, a form of beauty emanates, which makes speech lovely and beautiful.

3.12.1 Now speech is said to be superior in two ways, either in syllables or in nobility. Speech is superior in syllables when it contains many syllables. Thus, the word “monarchy” has more syllables than the word “being” and yet the word “being” is nobler than this word or term “monarchy.” It is simpler than it. Speech or terms are also called equal when they are composed of equal syllables, for example “queen” and “maid.” But although these are equal in syllables, none the less there is superiority in “queen” by reason of nobility. Now what has been said about superiority and inferiority should be understood when the superior and the inferior are treated relatively, since one cannot exist without the other. Hence it is necessary for the speaker to know which words are superior, which equal, and which inferior, in order to know what ought to appear in the beginning, what in the middle, and what in the end. For according to the superiority, equality, and inferiority of syllables one should place the inferior in the beginning, the equal in the middle, and the superior in the end. Hence one should say “prince and princess” and not “princess and prince.”

3.12.2 There is still another mode of superiority, equality, and inferiority in speech which is observed between a substance and a substance, between a substance and an accident, and between an accident and an accident. First between a substance and a substance, as between God and an angel, because God is superior to an angel. And also between fewer and more substances, for speech is superior with three words than if it contains only two. Thus “king, queen, and lady-in-waiting” is greater speech than “king and queen,” for example. Superiority can also be observed between a substance and an accident, as between a human being and eyesight, and between an accident and another accident, as between thinking and eyesight. Similarly equality can be observed between a substance and a substance, as between a father and a son, because the son is as much a substance as the father. Also between a substance and an accident, as between fire and its heat. And third between an accident and an accident, as between understanding and loving. And the same holds for inferiority, which one treats relative to superiority.

3.13 This is enough to say about the eighteen Principles, and the guidelines for finding in their properties the secrets of beauty that lend beauty and ornament to speech. Now we proceed with God’s help to the nine Rules of the General Art.


On the Nine Rules of the General Art

Now these nine Rules are general questions regarding everything one seeks to know about speech. The first question therefore asks “What is speech?” The second “Whence is speech?” The third “Why does speech exist?” The fourth “How big is speech?” The fifth “What is speech like?” The sixth “When is speech?” The seventh “Where is speech?” The eighth “How does speech exist?” The ninth “In what does speech exist?” The first is about the formal cause. The second about the material cause. The third about the final cause. The fourth about the quantity of speech. The fifth about the quality of speech. The sixth about the time of speech. The seventh about place. The eighth about disposition or habitual mode. The ninth about the subject of speech. Grasping the truth about all of these questions is very useful to knowing how to compose speech beautifully and ornately.


First Question

3.15 Now first one asks “What is speech?” Answer: speech is a significant utterance that signifies the language of the mind conceived in human thought, and which moves the tongue in the air, where it impresses its likeness in order to reveal it to the listeners. Knowing this—namely “What is speech"—and forming its definition is very useful to the speaker, since ignorance of this precludes lending beauty to speech.


Second Question

3.16 Second, one asks “Whence is speech?” To this question one responds that speech comes materially from the voice, and from the impression caused in the air by the tongue impressing in it the likenesses of mental words that arise in thought. Understanding the truth of this question is absolutely necessary to one who must compose beautiful discourse.


Third Question

3.17 The third question is “Why does speech exist?” The answer to this question is that speech exists for two reasons, one involving the form of speech, the other its end. Now speech, like any other thing, exists through its form, as explained in the first question about how the word “king” possesses great goodness. Speech exists through its form, since the voice is shaped in the air, signifying the language in the human mind and representing it outwardly to others through its likeness, directed to the tongue, formed in the air. Speech also exists for an end. For the end of speech is that for which words are spoken, as when a knight who desires to have the king’s horse, persuades the king thus: “Lord king who are good and generous, because of your goodness and generosity, I request that you give me your horse, since with it I could serve you in battle.” The end of speaking is the knight’s desire to have a horse, because that desire moves him to seek the king’s favor. Here it should also be noted that one more properly says “I request” than “I beg,” because “request” is a more beautiful word than “beg,” since “request” is formed and derived from its goodness and generosity— which cannot be said of the word “begging.” Now understanding this question helps a lot in knowing how to adorn speech. Because the more one examines carefully the form and end of speech, the more one will be able to adorn one’s speech.


Fourth Question

3.18 The fourth question is “How big is speech?” The response is that simple speech is one size and compound speech is another. A simple word is like “king,” “queen,” and similar ones. Compound speech is like this: “The king and queen have great beauty.” One calls it compound speech when many clauses are conjoined and words multiplied. For example, if one said “The king who is good and handsome, goes to the church to pray to God, where he finds the queen who is good and beautiful, who also entreats the Lord.” The speaker should therefore pay careful attention to the size of simple and compound speech, in order to know how to proffer a fitting amount, so that a speech won’t be displeasing to an audience because of prolixity or brevity.


Fifth Question

3.19 The fifth question is “What is speech like?” The answer to this is that some speech is proper, some appropriated. Proper speech is when one speaks thus: “The king speaks to his people urging them to prepare for war.” And it is appropriated when one speaks thus: “The vizier urges the people on behalf of the king to be continually ready for war.” Now if the proper speech is good, it is more beautiful and excellent than the appropriated. If however it is bad, it will be otherwise, because then the proper will be more foul and unworthy than the appropriated. The same thing also happens if some speech is beautiful in itself, while some other is beautiful from something else that colors it. Thus, someone might say “The queen who is beautiful is good.” Now this statement—namely “The queen is good"—lends color to the first statement and it appropriates its beauty. Therefore a speaker should know which speech is proper and which appropriated, which good and which bad, or which beautiful in itself or beautiful from something else. And likewise for the other qualities of speech, because this greatly assists in adorning speech.


Sixth Question

3.20 The sixth question is “When is speech?” Answer: speech exists at two moments. For speech exists at the time the mind conceives it and it exists at the time the voice expresses it externally. Thus, a knight first conceives the speech in which he wants to ask the king to give him a horse. This is the first time. Afterwards however, through the motion of the tongue forming the voice, he proffers these words externally when he says vocally to the king: “Lord, give me your horse.” And this is the second time. Now knowing each time of speech (i.e. the mental and vocal) is very useful to forming beautiful speech. For vocal speech should be adorned externally according to the process that exists in mental speech and mental concepts. Whoever is ignorant of each time will not be able to do this suitably.


Seventh Question

3.21 The seventh question is “Where is speech?” The answer to this is that speech is where its subject is, since speech by itself does not belong to a place. Accordingly speech can be said to exist in the mind, in the mouth, and in the ears of the listener. Now this is useful for the speaker to know and especially for the listener.


Eighth Question

3.22 The eighth question is “How does speech exist?” Answer: the way that speech exists follows the mode and order of its form, matter, and end. For example, before speaking, a wise and discreet speaker has a mode of forming in thought the speech addressed to others. And from this mental mode proceeds the mode of vocal speech. This comes from the mental speech when vocal words are formed externally as vowels and consonants by the power of the tongue in the air. Knowing this mode of speech is useful, because those who know this mode follow it when forming speech mentally and then follow this mode in speech externally through beautiful, good, organized words. This mode lends great beauty to speech since without this mode, speech cannot be beautiful.


Ninth Question

3.2.3 The ninth question is “In what does speech exist?” I answer: mental speech has the mind as its subject but vocal speech exists in the air; also speech exists in its end, form, and matter. It exists in the end that creates a wish or desire for something that can’t be had without words. Hence someone who desires something chooses and brings together words, which are the matter of speech, and informs the matter with a form. So speech exists in and is sought for a form, matter, and end. And this is treated more extensively in the treatment of Principles included in this third part.



On the Fourth Part of this Book, that is, Love

4.0 One who speaks lovingly beautifies speech.

Therefore we intend to pursue the treatment of love in order to provide instruction about ornamenting speech through love. Now this treatment contains ten proverbs applied to a purpose in speaking. From these ten one can learn how to apply the hundred proverbs listed above to a suitable purpose.


Exemplum

4.1 Love is the form that informs the will to love good and hate evil.

It is told that a certain knight had a beautiful and loving wife, whom another knight loved. Now her husband was so jealous of her that he often beat and insulted her. Because of all the beatings that her husband unjustly inflicted on her, that lady was somewhat inclined to accept the knight who loved her and who often begged her to accept him. But the love that filled the lady’s mind consoled her and vanquished her inclination to evil, so that she continued her observance of chasteness

This proverb with its exemplum makes a lovely speech if recited in this or a similar case.


Exemplum

4.2 Love humbles the proud and arrogant.

It is said that a certain good woman had a very proud son who often spoke very improperly and rudely to his mother But the mother was so full of affection and love for her son that she always responded to his rude talk with words redolent of love and humility. Now the mother’s sweet words were so pleasing to the son that he recognized his faults and the arrogance that he had shown to his mother, and completely changed for the better. Because of the awareness that he conceived from his mother’s powerful words, he became completely courteous to his mother in every way.

This proverb and its example is useful to someone who wishes through loving affection to correct a proud and uncivil person.


Exemplum

4.2 It is said that a certain good woman had a very proud son who often spoke very improperly and rudely to his mother. But the mother was so full of affection and love for her son that she always responded to his rude talk with words redolent of love and humility. Now the mother’s sweet words were so pleasing to the son that he recognized his faults and the arrogance that he had shown to his mother, and completely changed for the better. Because of the awareness that he conceived from his mother’s powerful words, he became completely courteous to his mother in every way.

This proverb and its example is useful to someone who wishes through loving affection to correct a proud and uncivil person.


Exemplum

4.3 Love is the virtue that makes one forget offenses and injustices.

This is explained in the following exemplum: there was a certain knight easily moved to wrath against his squire, who spoke very coarsely to him. When he ordered the squire to be seized and whipped with fifty lashes, the squire recounted to his master the proverb stated above, along with its exposition. And the account of this proverb was so redolent with love, that from the love beautifying his speech, and from the repentance that he promised to show for his offense, the squire mitigated the wrath of the knight raging against him. So the knight exempted the squire from punishment and spared him from the penalty of a beating.

This proverb and its exemplum is useful to those who seek mercy for their failings.


Exemplum

4.4 Those who have love easily obtain whatever they seek

It is told that a certain good noblewoman lost her husband when he, fighting bravely to defend their king, succumbed to mortal wounds in a battle. Afterwards, during a war between this king and another king, she lost her castle to plundering enemies. Now this lady had two marriageable daughters, but she could not provide them with the basis for a dowry, and was unable even to support herself or them. So she went to her king, along with another noblewoman full of love, and with a certain nephew who was a lawyer, so that they could entreat the king to provide her daughters with husbands and her with support. Now when the lawyer presented the lady’s request to the king in a legal way, as an obligation due to the lady who had lost her husband and castle in the king’s service, the king replied that at present he could not support the lady. But the other loving noblewoman who came with her begged the king on the lady’s behalf with tearful, humble words full of love. The force of the love in the lady’s words was so great that she achieved the effect of her request immediately, even though the king was scarcely moved by the lawyer’s words or the debt that he owed. Thus inclined by the power of love, he abundantly provided that lady with all necessary support. And he married her daughters according to their high rank.

This proverb and its example furnish the words for seeking a favor when one must make requests.


Exemplum

4.5 Begin your words from love.

It is told that there was a certain episcopal office-holder in whose cathedral church there was an archdeacon. The bishop was very learned, but the archdeacon was only somewhat educated. Now where the bishop preached lofty words and subtleties using the art of rhetoric, the archdeacon preached humble words piously and based on love. This power of love was so great that the words of the archdeacon, lovingly proffered, edified the people more than the subtle words of the bishop.

This proverb with its example is usefully recounted to those who in their preachings pay more attention to arranging words and to lofty ideas than to benefiting the audience, and who strive to please listeners more with wisdom than to edify them with the fervor of love.


Exemplum

4.6 A speaker’s love is the listener’s matter for the affection of each.

It is said that a certain man commended to his partner a chest containing a thousand talents and ten gold cloths. While doing this, he told his partner the proverb stated above. Then he departed on a pilgrimage. Now the partner placed the chest with the talents and cloths in a room. But one day fire broke out in the room, and as the house began to burn, the man remembered the words spoken by his partner when he commended the chest to him and left on the pilgrimage. Thanks to those words he hastened to bring the chest out of the house lest it burn. Once that was saved, he also wished to save his property, but the fire was so overwhelming that he could not. Thus he demonstrated the faithfulness prompted by love of his partner, because he cared more for the things of his friend than for his own.

This proverb with its exemplum have a place in recommending things that should be done from love, affection, and care for one another. Nothing should be completely entrusted to someone who lacks love.


Exemplum

4.7 Love gladdens the speaker and listener.

It is told that a certain merchant sent his son, whom he loved deeply, on a long journey with much merchandise. But by bad fortune, the powerful waves swallowed up his son with all the wares. When this news reached the father, he was greatly distraught. Throwing himself down in tears, he proposed to banish joy from his heart, to abandon the alms that he used to give for love of God, and likewise to cease the prayers that he used to offer to God. But an old friend of his, who loved God with fervent affection, spoke to the disconsolate man sweetly and kindly with love. He spoke lovingly to him so often that it consoled him for the loss of his goods and death of his son. In the end he praised God, blessed Him for the suffering that he endured, and returned to performing his accustomed alms and prayers.

This example has a place in consoling those who stray from good judgement when dejected by too much grief.


Exemplum

4.8 One who reprehends with love, is not reprehended.

It is said that a certain king had in his household a certain priest who was very loving. From the great love that filled him, he reprehended the king and everyone in his household and reproved their faults. After a certain knight had noticed this repeatedly, he told the king that he was greatly amazed by the king’s ability to endure so much criticism from this priest. The king replied that the criticism did cause some feelings of irritation in his heart whenever the priest reproved him. But the priest showed such moderation in criticizing and his words shone with such sweetness of love and light of truth, that it completely overcame any irritation.

This proverb and its example have a place among those who are criticized by others or criticize others.


Exemplum

4.9 Love asks no one to sell for money the time one could spend loving.

It is told that a certain handmaid was very loving and led a holy life. But the lady with whom she lived was exactly the opposite. The handmaid was greatly displeased by the evil deeds of her mistress, who unfairly harassed her. Because the many faults of her mistress prevented her from exercising love, one day she vowed to her mistress: “My lady, even if you gave me countless wealth, there is no way that I could live with you any longer.” So in order to lead a life of love pleasing to God, she left her mistress and refused all monetary gain.

This proverb and its example is beautifully and usefully told to those who love money more than virtue.


Exemplum

4.10 Whoever has love, makes ugly words beautiful.

There was a certain poor woman who in the prayers that she offered to God used language like this: she said that if she knew the place where God dwelt, she would go there every day and sweep God’s house, wash dishes, and prepare food to eat. And at the evening hour she would lay out God’s bed and wash God’s feet with warm water. Now she said this from the great love that she felt deeply for God. However, a certain old man, when he heard the language that the woman used in prayer, reprehended her saying “Good woman, you offer a foul and fatuous prayer to God. God truly has no need of such services. God’s house is brighter than the sun. God’s life is eternal. God therefore has no need of corporeal food, nor requires dishes washed, nor needs a bed or home since God’s power contains all things.” To this the woman responded that she knew no other way to serve God, except in the way that she had learned. But in so far as she knew and was able, she desired to serve God. Then the old man immediately recognized that the language of this woman’s prayer came from love and devotion, and what at first seemed foul to him, now seemed very beautiful. So he commended the woman for praying this way and exhorted her to continue doing so with fervent love.

This proverb with its exemplum should be told to those who consider words foolish without considering the spirit in which they are offered. With an example of this sort they should be taught to recognize that one must consider the spirit in which words are said and to what end or purpose they are directed.

4.11 This explanation suffices regarding the fourth part of this book—that is, about love—which teaches through proverbs and examples how to adom speech with comely beauty through and in love. Here ends for the glory and honor of God this book, which provides instruction on finding the subject of rhetoric and for composing beautiful and ornate speech according to the art of rhetoric. Master Ramon the Catalan compiled this treatise in the vernacular on the island of Cyprus at the monastery of Saint John Chrysostom in September of the year of Our Lord 1301. But in the year of Our Lord 1303 it was translated into Latin at Genoa, the renowned city of Italy. Here ends the New Rhetoric. Thanks be to God. Amen.

.. ..